The Efficacy of a Holding Community Program—Promoting Social Reflection at School

DOI: https://doi.org/10.15826/csp.2021.5.3.143

Abstract

The authors developed a Holding Community Program to achieve the following objectives: (a) to increase the perspective-taking capacity of adolescents; (b) to promote interpersonal and intergroup harmony; (c) to empower school students to be more (pro)active in their communities and in public life. Apart from the intervention itself, the study comprised a pre-test and a post-test and involved a total of 240 Hungarian high school students (159 female, 66.3%). The students were aged 14–18 (Mage=15.33; SDage=0.88). They were recruited from four high schools. Control groups (N=122) were chosen from the same institution and graded as experimental classes (N=118, 7 classes). Both immediate and long-term effects of the intervention (4–6 months after the intervention) were explored.  Quantitative analysis of the data indicated that the two-day intervention program had significantly increased the students’ perspective-taking capacity (short-term: F(1,238)=6.03, p<0.05, long-term: n.s.) and efficacy beliefs (short-term: F(1,238)= 3.83, p=0.052, long-term: F(1,238)= 3.38, p<0.05). After the training, students were more willing to participate in collective actions (short-term: F(1,238)= 7.32, p<0.01, long-term: F(1,238)= 3.83, p<0.05). These results seem quite promising but the outcome was not significant regarding its effect on prejudice.

Author Biographies

Anna Siegler, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

Anna Siegler is a psychologist currently doing her PhD at the PTE Doctoral School of Psychology in the field of school prevention and human rights education. She is an active volunteer at the Amnesty International and Power of Humanities Foundation, bringing educational programs to students. She gained knowledge on conflict mediation and emotional intelligence development. Anna participated in the World Anti-Bullying Forum in 2019.

Sára Serdült, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

Sára Serdült is an assistant lecturer at the Institute of Psychology, University of Pécs. She defended her doctoral dissertation on the subject of identity processes and intergroup relations.

Fanni Csernus, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

Fanni Csernus is a psychologist and a PhD student at the PTE Doctoral School of Psychology. Her current investigations explore the underlying motivation of collective action and societal change.

Lilla Dézma, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

Lilla Dézma is a psychologist and a PhD student at the PTE Doctoral School of Psychology in the field of social representation of climate change.

Izabella Ilea, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

Izabella Ilea is a psychologist and a PhD student at the PTE Doctoral School of Psychology. Her main research interest is the nature of entrepreneurship, leadership within organizational psychology.

Sára Bigazzi, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary

Sára Bigazzi is a social psychologist teaching at the University of Pécs. Her main research interests concern intergroup relations, minority/majority issues, potential conflicts and their resolutions, collective action and Climate Crisis. For more than 20 years she has been involved in field interventions, community building, in which she tries to translate theoretical reflections and research results into practical resolutions.

References


  • Aboud, F. E., Tredoux, C., Tropp, L. R., Brown, C. S., Niens, U., & Noor, N. M. (2012). Interventions to reduce prejudice and enhance inclusion and respect for ethnic differences in early childhood: A systematic review. Developmental Review, 32(4), 307–336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2012.05.001

  • Allport, G. W. (1958). The nature of prejudice. Doubleday/Anchor.

  • Aronson, E., & Patnoe, S. (1997). The jigsaw classroom: Building cooperation in the classroom (2nd ed.). Addison Wesley Longman.

  • Bárdossy, I., Dudás, M., Pethőné Nagy, Cs., & Priskinné Rizner, E. (2002). A kritikai gondolkodás fejlesztése – az interaktív és reflektív tanulás lehetőségei. Tanulási segédlet pedagógusok és pedagógusjelöltek számára a saját élményű tanuláshoz [Developing critical thinking – opportunities for interactive and reflective learning. A learning aid for educators and teacher candidates for self-directed learning]. University of Pécs.

  • Batson, C. D., Chang, J., Orr, R., & Rowland, J. (2002). Empathy, attitudes, and action: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group motivate one to help the group? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1656–1666. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616702237647

  • Bigazzi, S., Serdült, S., & Bokrétás, I. (2020). Empowerment of intergroup harmony and equity. In N. Balvin & D. Christie (Eds.), Children and peace (pp. 119–137). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22176-8_8

  • Bigazzi, S., Siegler, A., Serdült, S., Bokrétás, I., & Takács, B. (2019). A measure of perceived identity threat and of distancing relevant others: Development of the multiple threat and prejudice questionnaire. Open Journal of Social Sciences, 7, 237–254. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2019.710019

  • Bogardus, E.S. (1933). A social distance scale. Sociology & Social Research, 17, 265-271.

  • Brewer, M. B. (2000). Reducing prejudice through cross-categorization: Effects of multiple social identities. In S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 165–183). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

  • Corcoran, R. P., Cheung, A. C., Kim, E., & Xie, C. (2018). Effective universal school-based social and emotional learning programs for improving academic achievement: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 50 years of research. Educational Research Review, 25, 56–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2017.12.001

  • Davis, M. H. (1983). Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 44(1), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113

  • Davis, M. H., Conklin, L., Smith, A., & Luce, C. (1996). Effect of perspective taking on the cognitive representation of persons: A merging of self and other. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 713–726. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.713

  • Elias, M. J., Zins, J. E., Weissberg, R. P., Frey, K. S., Greenberg, M. T., Haynes, N. M., Kessler, R., Schwab-Stone, M. E., & Shriver, T. P. (1997). Promoting social and emotional learning: Guidelines for educators. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).

  • Faragó, L., & Kende, A. (2017). Az elnyomás támogatása vagy az egyenlőség ellenzése? Az új Szociális Dominancia Orientáció Skála (SDO7) vizsgálata. [Supporting oppression or opposing equality? Examination of the new Social Dominance Orientation Scale (SDO7)]. Alkalmazott pszichológia, 17(1), 115–135. https://doi.org/10.17627/ALKPSZICH.2017.1.115

  • Faragó,L., Kende, A., & Krekó, P. (2019). Justification of intergroup violence – the role of right-wing authoritarianism and propensity for radical action. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 12(2), 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2019.1576916

  • Fonagy, P., Steele, M., Steele, H., Moran, G. S., & Higgitt, A. C. (1991). The capacity for understanding mental states: The reflective self in parent and child and its significance for security of attachment. Infant Mental Health Journal, 12(3), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0355(199123)12:3<201::AID-IMHJ2280120307>3.0.CO;2-7

  • Ford, K. A. (Ed.). (2018). Facilitating change through intergroup dialogue: Social justice advocacy in practice. Routledge.

  • Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Psychology Press.

  • Gaertner, S., Guerra, R., Rebelo, M., Dovidio, J., Hehman, E., & Deegan, M. (2016). The common ingroup identity model and the development of a functional perspective: A cross-national collaboration. In J. Vala, S. Waldzus, & M.-M. Calheiros (Eds.), The social developmental construction of violence and intergroup conflict (pp. 105–120). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42727-0_5

  • Géczy, D., & Varga, Z. (2019). Nők és férfiak nemi identitás fenyegetettsége a mai Magyarországon [Women and men’s gender identity threat in contemporary Hungary]. Interdisciplinary EJournal of Gender Studies 9(2), 58–80. https://ojs.bibl.u-szeged.hu/index.php/tntef/article/view/33890

  • Guerra, R., Rebelo, M., Monteiro, M. B., & Gaertner, S. L. (2013). Translating recategorization strategies into an antibias educational intervention. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00976.x

  • Hamadache, A. (1991). Non-formal education: A definition of the concept and some examples. Prospects, 21(1), 109–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02333644

  • Hammack, P. L., & Pilecki, A. (2015). Power in history: Contrasting theoretical approaches to intergroup dialogue. Journal of Social Issues, 71(2), 371–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12116

  • Hodges, S. D., Clark, B. A. M., & Myers, M. W. (2011). Better living through perspective taking. In R. Biswas-Diener (Ed.), Positive psychology as social change (pp. 193–218). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9938-9_12

  • Hodges, S. D., Denning, K. R., & Lieber, S. (2018). Perspective taking: motivation and impediment to shared reality. Current Opinion in Psychology, 23, 104–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.02.007

  • Hyman, S. (2012). The school as a holding environment. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy, 11(3), 205–216. https://doi.org/10.1080/15289168.2012.700793

  • Jovchelovitch, S, & Concha, N (2013). Kids Company: a diagnosis of the organisation and its interventions: executive summary. The London School of Economics and Political Science. https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/52857/

  • Kahn, W. A. (2001). Holding environments at work. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 37(3), 260–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021886301373001

  • Kende, A., Nyúl, B., Hadarics, M., Veszna, W., & Hunyadi, B. (2018). Romaellenesség és antiszemitizmus Magyarországon: Projektzáró tanulmány [Anti-Roma attitude and anti-Semitism in Hungary: Final project study]. Political Capital, Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem (ELTE) Szociálpszichológia Tanszékének, Social Development Institute.

  • Kende, A., Tropp, L., & Lantos, N. A. (2017). Testing a contact intervention based on intergroup friendship between Roma and Non-Roma Hungarians: Reducing bias through institutional support in a non-supportive societal context. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 47(1), 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12422

  • Kulcsár, Zs. (Ed.). (2002). Morális fejlődés, empátia, altruizmus [Moral development, empathy, altruism]. ELTE Eötvös Kiadó.

  • Latchem, C. R. (2014). Informal learning and non-formal education for development. Journal of Learning for Development, 1(1). https://jl4d.org/index.php/ejl4d/article/view/6

  • Minkle, B., Bashir, A. S., & Sutulov, C. (2008). Peer consultation for mediators: The use of a holding environment to support mediator reflection, inquiry, and self‐knowing. Negotiation Journal, 24(3), 303–323. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1571-9979.2008.00186.x

  • Myers, M. W., & Hodges, S. D. (2012). The structure of self–other overlap and its relationship to perspective taking. Personal Relationships, 19(4), 663–679. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2011.01382.x

  • Nesdale, D. (2007). The development of ethnic prejudice in early childhood: Theories and research. In O. N. Saracho & B. Spodek (Eds.), Contemporary perspectives on socialization and social development in early childhood education (pp. 213–240). IAP Information Age Publishing.

  • Örkény, A., & Váradi, L. (2010). Az előítéletes gondolkodás társadalmi beágyazottsága, nemzetközi összehasonlításban [Social embeddedness of prejudiced thinking in international comparison]. Alkalmazott Pszichológia, 12(1–2), 29–46.

  • Orosz, G., Bánki, E., Bőthe, B., Tóth‐Király, I., & Tropp, L. R. (2016). Don't judge a living book by its cover: Effectiveness of the living library intervention in reducing prejudice toward Roma and LGBT people. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 46(9), 510–517. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12379

  • Paksi, B. (2019). Magyarországi tendenciák az iskolai prevenció területén [Hungarian tendencies in the field of school prevention]. Educatio, 28(3), 441–458. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.28.2019.3.1

  • Paluck, E. L., & Green, D. P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A review and assessment of research and practice. Annual review of psychology, 60, 339–367. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163607

  • Paolini, S., Hewstone, M., Cairns, E., & Voci, A. (2004). Effects of direct and indirect cross-group friendships on judgments of Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland: The mediating role of an anxiety-reduction mechanism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(6), 770–786. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203262848

  • Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65

  • Pettigrew, T. F., Tropp, L. R., Wagner, U., & Christ, O. (2011). Recent advances in intergroup contact theory, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(3), 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001

  • Raabe, T., & Beelmann, A. (2011). Development of ethnic, racial, and national prejudice in childhood and adolescence: A multinational meta-analysis of age differences. Child Development, 82(6), 1715–1737. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x

  • Riek, B. M., Mania, E. W., Gaertner, S. L., McDonald, S. A., & Lamoreaux, M. J. (2010). Does a common ingroup identity reduce intergroup threat? Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 13(4), 403–423. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430209346701

  • Sugimoto, A. T., & Carter, K. (2015). The story of schools, schooling, and students from the 1960s to the present. In K. Bosworth (Ed.), Prevention science in school settings (pp. 19–44). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3155-2_2

  • Tajfel, H. (1978). The achievement of group differentiation. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 77–98). Academic Press.

  • Todd, A. R., & Burgmer, P. (2013). Perspective taking and automatic intergroup evaluation change: Testing an associative self-anchoring account. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104(5), 786–802. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031999

  • Trilling, B., & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life in our times. Jossey-Bass/Wiley.

  • Twemlow, S. W., Fonagy, P., Sacco, F. C., Gies, M. L., Evans, R., & Ewbank, R. (2001). Creating a peaceful school learning environment: A controlled study of an elementary school intervention to reduce violence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158(5), 808–810. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.5.808

  • Váradi, L. (2014). Youths trapped in prejudice: Hungarian adolescents’ attitudes towards the Roma. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-05891-3

  • Vescio, T. K., Sechrist, G. B., & Paolucci, M. P. (2003). Perspective taking and prejudice reduction: The mediational role of empathy arousal and situational attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33(4), 455–472. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.163

  • Vorauer, J. D., & Sasaki, S. J. (2009). Helpful only in the abstract? Ironic effects of empathy in intergroup interaction. Psychological Science, 20(2), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02265.x

  • Webster-Stratton, C. & Reid, M. J. (2004). Strengthening social and emotional competence in young children—The foundation for early school readiness and success. Infants and Young Children, 17(2), 96–113. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200404000-00002

  • Winnicott, D. W. (1965). A clinical study of the effect of a failure of the average expectable environment on a child's mental functioning. The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 46, 81–87.

  • Zsolnai, A. (2002). Relationship between children's social competence, learning motivation and school achievement. Educational Psychology, 22(3), 317–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410220138548

  • Zsolnai, A., Rácz, A., & Rácz, K. (2015). Szociális és érzelmi tanulás az iskolában [Social and emotional learning at school]. Iskolakultúra, 25(10), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.17543/ISKKULT.2015.10.59

Published
2021-10-11
How to Cite
Siegler, A., Serdült, S., Csernus, F., Dézma, L., Ilea, I., & Bigazzi, S. (2021). The Efficacy of a Holding Community Program—Promoting Social Reflection at School. Changing Societies & Personalities, 5(3), 422–437. doi:10.15826/csp.2021.5.3.143
Citation Formats
Issue
Vol. 5, No. 3 (2021)
Section
Articles