The Fertility in Child Marriage Families: In-Depth Investigation in Indonesia
Abstract
Fertility is a primary determinant of population growth rate. Theoretically, child marriage families have a higher chance of fertility. Accordingly, this study aims to comprehend the interpretation of fertility among the family from child marriage. The interpretation of fertility was observed in depth using phenomenology (causal motives) through data collection and analysis. The research participants were married women who had children or were 16 years old or younger and did not yet have a child. The analysis results indicate that child marriage families interpret fertility as a burden, marriage reinforcement, and investment. The families from child marriage are motivated to have fewer children and space them out in terms of age. It is important to note that no child-free doctrine was discovered, as it goes against Islamic principles. Additionally, having children is believed to improve marital relations within the child marriage community on Bawean Island. Children are often viewed as an economic investment and a guarantee for future parental care. Child marriage on Bawean Island did not have a discernible impact on the population growth rate.
References
- Agrillo, C., & Nelini, C. (2008). Childfree by choice: A review. Journal of Cultural Geography, 25(3), 347–363. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873630802476292
- Al’Ghani, M. Z., Budijanto, Sumarmi, & Susilo, S. (2024). Social capital in social construction: In-depth investigation of early marriages in Bawean Island, Indonesia. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 32, 631–649. https://doi.org/10.25133/JPSSv322024.037
- Albert, S. B. Z., Martinelli, K. G., Zandonade, E., & do Santos Neto, E. T. (2023). Mortalidade de mulheres em idade fértil no Brasil de 2006 a 2019: Causas e tendências [Mortality of women of fertile age between 2006 and 2019: Causes and trends]. Revista Brasileira de Estudos de População, 40, Article e0233. https://doi.org/10.20947/S0102-3098a0233
- Angriani, P., Sumarmi, Ruja, I. N., & Bachri, S. (2018). River management: The importance of the roles of the public sector and community in river preservation in Banjarmasin (A case study of the Kuin River, Banjarmasin, South Kalimantan—Indonesia). Sustainable Cities and Society, 43, 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2018.08.004
- Artina, D. (2022). The existence of traditional law on ethical marriage in Ganting Village, Salo District linked to Islamic Law. In M. M. Lestari, H. Firmanda, & A. Tiaraputri, Samariadi (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd Riau Annual Meeting on Law and Social Sciences (pp. 18–22). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220406.004
- Ashburn, K., Kerner, B., Ojamuge, D., & Lundgren, R. (2017). Evaluation of the Responsible, Engaged, and Loving (REAL) Fathers Initiative on physical child punishment and intimate partner violence in Northern Uganda. Prevention Science, 18(7), 854–864. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-016-0713-9
- Ayuningtyas, A. A., & Riyono, B. (2023). Exploring anchor personality and true meaning in Indonesian young adults. Changing Societies & Personalities, 7(2), 102–128. https://doi.org/10.15826/csp.2023.7.2.233
- Badan Pusat Statistik [Central Bureau of Statistics]. (2021). Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020 [Indonesia Population Census Results 2020]. https://www.bps.go.id/pressrelease/2021/01/21/1854/hasil-sensus-penduduk-2020.html
- Badan Pusat Statistik [Central Bureau of Statistics]. (2023). Laju Pertumbuhan Penduduk Indonesia 2020–2023 [Indonesian Population Growth Rate 2020–2023]. https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/2/MTk3NiMy/laju-pertumbuhan-penduduk.html
- Badan Pusat Statistik [Central Bureau of Statistics], Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional [National Development Planning Agency], UNICEF, & PUSKAPA. (2020). Pencegahan Perkawinan Anak: Percepatan yang Tidak Bisa Ditunda [Prevention of child marriage: Acceleration that cannot be delayed]. https://www.unicef.org/indonesia/media/2851/file/Child-Marriage-Report-2020.pdf
- Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Gresik [Central Bureau of Statistics of Gresik Regency]. (2021). Kabupaten Gresik Dalam Angka 2021 [Gresik Regency in Figures 2021]. https://gresikkab.bps.go.id/publication/2021/02/26/00199c3a4f9ee46455ee4f1e/kabupaten-gresik-dalam-angka-2021.html
- Blackstone, A., & Stewart, M. D. (2012). Choosing to be childfree: Research on the decision not to parent. Sociology Compass, 6(9), 718–727. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2012.00496.x
- Blokker, P. (2011). Pragmatic sociology: Theoretical evolvement and empirical application. European Journal of Social Theory, 14(3), 251–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431011412344
- BPS Provinsi Jawa Timur [East Java Central Bureau of Statistics]. (2021). Angka Harapan Hidup (Tahun) 2018–2020 [Life expectancy (years) 2018–2020]. https://jatim.bps.go.id/indicator/26/29/2/angka-harapan-hidup.html
- Castro, R., & Tapia, J. (2021). Health, childlessness and poverty in Latin American countries. Cadernos de Saúde Pública, 37(1), Article e00248919. https://doi.org/10.1590/0102-311X00248919
- Caulk, M. (2021). Christian, childfree by choice women: Narrative-based experiences and implications for mental health counseling (Publication No. 28714745) [Doctoral dissertation, Regent University]. ProQuest Dissertations and These Global. https://www.proquest.com/openview/df851c6b469f29e5095dbbcc44d6a9d4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
- Cetorelli, V. (2014). The effect on fertility of the 2003–2011 war in Iraq. Population and Development Review, 40(4), 581–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2014.00001.x
- Chesebro, J. W., & Borisoff, D. J. (2007). What makes qualitative research qualitative? Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 8(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17459430701617846
- Condorelli, M., & Demeestere, I. (2019). Challenges of fertility preservation in non-oncological diseases. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica, 98(5), 638–646. https://doi.org/10.1111/aogs.13577
- da Silva-Filho, A. L., Lino, L. M. C., Ramires, Y., & Bueno, R. L. P. (2022). Reproductive health in Brazil and Europe: Commentary on an analytical parallel. Reproductive, Female and Child Health, 1(1), 7–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/rfc2.11
- Davies, J. C. (2011). Preserving the ‘“us identity”’ through marriage commitment while living wit early-stage dementia. Dementia, 10(2), 217–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471301211398991
- Defi, A. M., Hufad, A., & Wilodati. (2022). Analysis of women’s body power in consumer culture: Study of Javanese sinden manifestations in facing gender exclusion. In S. Sumarmi, R. P. Shrestha, I. N. Ruja, A. M. Tayeb, & S. Osman (Eds.), Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Social Knowledge Sciences and Education (pp. 180–188). https://doi.org/10.2991/978-2-494069-63-3_19
- Dinas Kesehatan Kabupaten Gresik [Gresik District Health Office]. (2021). Laporan Kinerja Instansi Pemerintah Tahun 2020 [Government Agency Performance Report 2020]. https://gresikkab.go.id/documents/1615176698-LKJ-IP%20DINAS%20KESEHAN%202020.pdf
- Döringer, S. (2021). ‘The problem-centred expert interview’. Combining qualitative interviewing approaches for investigating implicit expert knowledge. International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 24(3), 265–278. https://doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2020.1766777
- Fahmi, S., & Pinem, M. (2018). Analisis nilai anak dalam gerakan keluarga berencana bagi keluarga Melayu [Analysis of the value of children in the family planning movement for Malay families]. Jupiis: Jurnal Pendidikan Ilmu-Ilmu Sosial, 10(1), 112–119. https://doi.org/10.24114/jupiis.v10i1.9653
- Fatchan, A. (2011). Metode penelitian kualitatif [Qualitative research methods]. Jenggala Pustaka Utama.
- Gallo, L. C., Penedo, F. J., de los Monteros, K. E., & Arguelles, W. (2009). Resiliency in the face of disadvantage: Do Hispanic cultural characteristics protect health outcomes? Journal of Personality, 77(6), 1707–1746. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00598.x
- Gayatri, M. (2020). The utilization of long-acting reversible contraception and associated factors among women in Indonesia. Global Journal of Health Science, 12(3), 110–120. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v12n3p110
- Götmark, F., & Andersson, M. (2020). Human fertility in relation to education, economy, religion, contraception, and family planning programs. BMC Public Health, 20(1), Article 265. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8331-7
- Halgunseth, L. C., Ispa, J. M., & Rudy, D. (2006). Parental control in Latino families: An integrated review of the literature. Child Development, 77(5), 1282–1297. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00934.x
- Hammersley, M. (2019). Alfred Schutz and ethnomethodology: Origins and departures. History of the Human Sciences, 32(2), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0952695119830304
- Hansen, T. (2012). Parenthood and happiness: A review of folk theories versus empirical evidence. Social Indicators Research, 108(1), 29–64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9865-y
- Hartoyo. (1998). Investing in children: Study of rural families in Indonesia [Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]. VTechWorks. https://hdl.handle.net/10919/29793
- Hedges, S., Borgerhoff Mulder, M., James, S., & Lawson, D. W. (2016). Sending children to school: Rural livelihoods and parental investment in education in northern Tanzania. Evolution and Human Behavior, 37(2), 142–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.10.001
- Hennink, M., & Kaiser, B. N. (2022). Sample sizes for saturation in qualitative research: A systematic review of empirical tests. Social Science & Medicine, 292, Article 114523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114523
- Höglund, B., & Hildingsson, I. (2023). Why and when choosing child-free life in Sweden? Reasons, influencing factors and personal and societal factors: Individual interviews during 2020–2021. Sexual & Reproductive Healthcare, 35, Article 100809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.srhc.2022.100809
- Huber-Krum, S., Miedema, S. S., Shortt, J. W., Villaveces, A., & Kress, H. (2024). Path analysis of adverse childhood experiences, early marriage, early pregnancy, and exposure to intimate partner violence among young women in Honduras. Journal of Family Violence, 39(4), 705–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-023-00520-y
- Hyseni Duraku, Z., Jemini-Gashi, L., & Toçi, E. (2020). Perceptions of early marriage, educational aspirations, and career goals among Kosovar adolescents. Marriage & Family Review, 56(6), 513–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/01494929.2020.1728006
- Kasnodirahardjo. (2016). Nilai Anak Dalam Keluarga Dan Upaya Pemeliharaan Kesehatannya (Suatu Studi Etnografi Di Desa Gadingsari, Kabupaten Bantul) [The value of children in the family and efforts to maintain their health (An ethnographic study in Gadingsari Village, Bantul Regency)]. National Health Research Repository (Kemkes). http://r2kn.litbang.kemkes.go.id/handle/123456789/82981
- Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia [Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia]. (2020). Profil Kesehatan Indonesia Tahun 2019 [Indonesia Health Profile 2019]. https://kemkes.go.id/id/profil-kesehatan-indonesia-2019
- Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia [Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia]. (2021). Profil Kesehatan Indonesia Tahun 2020 [Indonesia Health Profile 2020]. https://www.kemkes.go.id/app_asset/file_content_download/Profil-Kesehatan-Indonesia-2020.pdf
- Kementerian Pemberdayaan Perempuan Dan Perlindungan Anak [Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection]. (2021). Profil Anak Indonesia 2020 [Indonesian Child Profile 2020]. https://www.kemenpppa.go.id/page/view/MzA0MA==
- Lampropoulou, A. (2018). Personality, school, and family: What is their role in adolescents’ subjective well-being. Journal of Adolescence, 67(1), 12–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.05.013
- Leibowitz, A. (1974). Home investment in children. Journal of Political Economy, 82(2, Pt. 2), 111–135. https://doi.org/10.1086/260295
- Leite, I. C., & Gupta, N. (2007). Assessing regional differences in contraceptive discontinuation, failure and switching in Brazil. Reproductive Health, 4, Article 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-4755-4-6
- Liang, M., Simelane, S., Chalasani, S., & Snow, R. (2021). New estimations of child marriage: Evidence from 98 low- and middle-income countries. PLOS ONE, 16(10), Article e0258378. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258378
- Mahkamah Agung Republik Indonesia [Supreme Court of the Republic of Indonesia]. (2020). Putusan PA Bawean Perceraian Putus Tahun 2020 [Bawean Island marriage divorce decisions in 2020]. https://putusan3.mahkamahagung.go.id/direktori/index/pengadilan/pa-bawean/kategori/perceraian/tahunjenis/putus/tahun/2020.html
- Marciano, T. D. (1978). Male pressure in the decision to remain childfree. Alternative Lifestyles, 1(1), 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01081973
- Matsai, V., & Raniga, T. (2021). Economic stressors and coping strategies of single mothers living in poverty in Zimbabwe. Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk, 57(2), 182–192. https://doi.org/10.15270/57-2-928
- Mehra, D., Sarkar, A., Sreenath, P., Behera, J., & Mehra, S. (2018). Effectiveness of a community based intervention to delay early marriage, early pregnancy and improve school retention among adolescents in India. BMC Public Health, 18, Article 732. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5586-3
- Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). SAGE.
- Mogro-Wilson, C. (2011). Resilience in vulnerable and at-risk Latino families. Infants & Young Children, 24(3), 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0b013e31822006b2
- Moleong, J. L. (2018). Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif [Qualitative research methodology]. PT Remaja Rosdakarya.
- Murphy-Graham, E., Cohen, A. K., & Pacheco-Montoya, D. (2020). School dropout, child marriage, and early pregnancy among adolescent girls in rural Honduras. Comparative Education Review, 64(4), 703–724. https://doi.org/10.1086/710766
- Nuutila, L., & Salanterä, S. (2006). Children with a long-term illness: Parents’ experiences of care. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 21(2), 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2005.07.005
- Ojala, J., Zagheni, E., Billari, F. C., & Weber, I. (2017). Fertility and its meaning: Evidence from search behavior. Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media, 11(1), 640–643. https://doi.org/10.1609/icwsm.v11i1.14915
- Onagoruwa, A., & Wodon, Q. (2018). Measuring the impact of child marriage on total fertility: A study for fifteen countries. Journal of Biosocial Science, 50(5), 626–639. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021932017000542
- Ondiba, H. A., & Matsui, K. (2019). Social attributes and factors influencing entrepreneurial behaviors among rural women in Kakamega County, Kenya. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 9, Article 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-018-0123-5
- Palmer, C., & Bolderston, A. (2006). A brief introduction to qualitative research. Canadian Journal of Medical Radiation Technology, 37(1), 16–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0820-5930(09)60112-2
- Parker, C., Scott, S., & Geddes, A. (2019). Snowball sampling. SAGE Research Methods Foundations, 1–13.
- Parsons, J., Edmeades, J., Kes, A., Petroni, S., Sexton, M., & Wodon, Q. (2015). Economic impacts of child marriage: A review of the literature. The Review of Faith & International Affairs, 13(3), 12–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2015.1075757
- Polyakova, M. (2018). Child marriage and female educational attainment: A complex relationship. Atlantic Economic Journal, 46(4), 475–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11293-018-9598-2
- Radon, C. M., Borkar, A. A., & Homburg, R. R. (2015). Female fertility preservation: A fertile future? The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist, 17(2), 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1111/tog.12191
- Rahiem, M. D. H. (2021). COVID-19 and the surge of child marriages: A phenomenon in Nusa Tenggara Barat, Indonesia. Child Abuse & Neglect, 118, Article 105168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105168
- Ramos Jaraba, S. M., Quiceno Toro, N., Ochoa Sierra, M., Ruiz Sánchez, L., García Jiménez, M. A., Salazar-Barrientos, M. Y., Bedoya Bedoya, E., Vélez Álvarez, G. A., Langer, A., Gausman, J., & Garcés-Palacio, I. C. (2020). Health in conflict and post-conflict settings: Reproductive, maternal and child health in Colombia. Conflict and Health, 14, Article 33. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-020-00273-1
- Rumble, L., Febrianto, R. F., Larasati, M. N., Hamilton, C., Mathews, B., & Dunne, M. P. (2020). Childhood sexual violence in Indonesia: A systematic review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(2), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018767932
- Samuri, M. A. A., Mohd Awal, N. A., & Abu Bakar, M. A. (2022). Curbing child marriage amongst Muslims in Malaysia: Towards legal reform. UUM Journal of Legal Studies, 13(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.32890/uumjls2022.13.1.1
- Sejati, A. E., Sumarmi, S., Astina, I. K., Susilo, S., & Kurniawati, E. (2023). The environmental conservation value of Tengger tribe’s traditional ceremony in supporting the Mount Bromo tourism area. GeoJournal of Tourism and Geosites, 46(1), 315–326. https://doi.org/10.30892/gtg.46135-1029
- Susilo, S., Istiawat, N. F., Budijanto, & Definika, I. (2022). Phenomenon of unregistered marriage in teenagers in Indonesia: A case study of the Madurese community in Situbondo. KnE Social Sciences, 7(16), 405–417. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v7i16.12184
- Susilo, S., Istiawati, N. F., Aliman, M., & Alghani, M. Z. (2021). Investigation of early marriage: A phenomenology study in the society of Bawean Island, Indonesia. Journal of Population and Social Studies, 29, 544–562. https://doi.org/10.25133/JPSSv292021.034
- Susilo, S., Istiawati, N. F., Deffinika, I., & Budijanto. (2021). Bawean Island community survival strategies during the COVID-19 pandemics. Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities, 11(1), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.14203/jissh.v11i1.183
- Taylor, A. Y., Murphy-Graham, E., Van Horn, J., Vaitla, B., Del Valle, Á., & Cislaghi, B. (2019). Child marriages and unions in Latin America: Understanding the roles of agency and social norms. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(Suppl. 4), S45–S51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.12.017
- Undang-undang (UU) Nomor 16 Tahun 2019: Perubahan atas Undangundang Nomor 1 Tahun 1974 tentang Perkawinan [Law (UU) Number 16 of 2019: Amendments to Law Number 1 of 1974 concerning marriage]. (2019). Database Peraturan JDIH BPK. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/122740/uu-no-16-tahun-2019
- UNICEF. (n.d.). Child marriage and early unions in Latin America and the Caribbean: An alliance for the rights of girls. https://www.unicef.org/lac/en/child-marriage-and-early-unions-in-latin-america-and-the-caribbean
- United Nations. (n.d.). World population projected to reach 9.8 billion in 2050, and 11.2 billion in 2100. https://www.un.org/en/desa/world-population-projected-reach-98-billion-2050-and-112-billion-2100
- Utomo, B., Sucahya, P. K., Romadlona, N. A., Robertson, A. S., Aryanty, R. I., & Magnani, R. J. (2021). The impact of family planning on maternal mortality in Indonesia: What future contribution can be expected? Population Health Metrics, 19(1), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12963-020-00245-w
- Vander Borght, M., & Wyns, C. (2018). Fertility and infertility: Definition and epidemiology. Clinical Biochemistry, 62, 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2018.03.012
- Villa, Z. M., Sunarti, E., & Muflikhati, I. (2020). Perilaku investasi anak menentukan peran nilai anak dalam kesejahteraan anak [Parental investment: Determinate role of values of children on child well-being]. Jurnal Ilmu Keluarga dan Konsumen, 13(2), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.24156/jikk.2020.13.2.151
- vom Lehn, D. (2019). Phenomenology-based ethnography for management studies and organizational analysis. British Journal of Management, 30(1), 188–202. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12309
- Wismayanti, Y. F., O’Leary, P., Tilbury, C., & Tjoe, Y. (2019). Child sexual abuse in Indonesia: A systematic review of literature, law and policy. Child Abuse & Neglect, 95, Article 104034. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104034